Beef Liver Omega 3 Omega 6

A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness

Cynthia A Daley

¹College of Agriculture, California State University, Chico, CA, Usa

Amber Abbott

ⁱCollege of Agriculture, California State Academy, Chico, CA, U.s.a.

Patrick Southward Doyle

¹Higher of Agronomics, California State University, Chico, CA, Us

Glenn A Nader

²University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, USA

Stephanie Larson

^twoUniversity of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, USA

Received 2009 Jul 29; Accepted 2010 Mar x.

Abstruse

Growing consumer interest in grass-fed beefiness products has raised a number of questions with regard to the perceived differences in nutritional quality between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle. Research spanning iii decades suggests that grass-based diets tin significantly meliorate the fatty acrid (FA) limerick and antioxidant content of beefiness, admitting with variable impacts on overall palatability. Grass-based diets have been shown to heighten full conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (C18:ii) isomers, trans vaccenic acrid (TVA) (C18:1 t11), a precursor to CLA, and omega-3 (northward-3) FAs on a k/g fat basis. While the overall concentration of total SFAs is not different between feeding regimens, grass-finished beefiness tends toward a higher proportion of cholesterol neutral stearic FA (C18:0), and less cholesterol-elevating SFAs such as myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) FAs. Several studies propose that grass-based diets drag precursors for Vitamin A and E, as well as cancer fighting antioxidants such as glutathione (GT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) action as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Fat conscious consumers will as well prefer the overall lower fat content of a grass-fed beefiness production. Still, consumers should be aware that the differences in FA content will also give grass-fed beef a singled-out grass flavor and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. In addition, the fat from grass-finished beef may have a yellow appearance from the elevated carotenoid content (precursor to Vitamin A). It is too noted that grain-fed beef consumers may reach similar intakes of both northward-3 and CLA through the consumption of higher fat grain-fed portions.

Review Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fatty acid profile in grass-fed beefiness

3. Bear upon of grass-finishing on omega-three fatty acids

4. Bear on of grass-finishing on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acrid (TVA)

5. Bear upon of grass-finishing on β-carotenes/carotenoids

6. Impact of grass-finishing on α-tocopherol

7. Impact of grass-finishing on GT & SOD activeness

8. Impact of grass-finishing on flavor and palatability

nine. Conclusion

10. References

Introduction

There is considerable back up among the nutritional communities for the diet-middle (lipid) hypothesis, the idea that an imbalance of dietary cholesterol and fats are the primary cause of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) [i]. Wellness professionals world-wide recommend a reduction in the overall consumption of SFAs, trans-fatty acids (TAs) and cholesterol, while emphasizing the need to increment intake of due north-3 polyunsaturated fats [ane,two]. Such broad sweeping nutritional recommendations with regard to fatty consumption are largely due to epidemiologic studies showing stiff positive correlations between intake of SFA and the incidence of CVD, a condition believed to consequence from the concomitant rise in serum low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol equally SFA intake increases [three,iv]. For case, it is generally accepted that for every 1% increase in free energy from SFA, LDL cholesterol levels reportedly increase past 1.3 to 1.7 mg/dL (0.034 to 0.044 mmol/50) [5-7].

Wide promotion of this correlative information spurred an anti-SFA campaign that reduced consumption of dietary fats, including most beast proteins such as meat, dairy products and eggs over the last 3 decades [8], indicted on their relatively high SFA and cholesterol content. Nonetheless, more than contempo lipid research would suggest that non all SFAs have the same touch on on serum cholesterol. For instance, lauric acid (C12:0) and myristic acid (C14:0), have a greater total cholesterol raising consequence than palmitic acid (C16:0), whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has a neutral issue on the concentration of total serum cholesterol, including no apparent impact on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acid increases total serum cholesterol, although it as well decreases the ratio of total cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increase in HDL cholesterol [5,7,ix]. Thus, the individual fatty acid profiles tend to exist more instructive than broad lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore be considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD.

Conspicuously the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; not only on the way nosotros eat, just also on the style food is produced on-farm. Indeed, changes in animate being breeding and genetics have resulted in an overall bacteria beef production[10]. Preliminary test of diets containing today'south leaner beef has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beefiness consumption is limited to a three ounce portion devoid of all external fat [11]. O'Dea's piece of work was the first of several studies to show today's leaner beef products can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing risk of CVD [12-15].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers accept besides contradistinct their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant diet, producing a product referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, most of the beefiness produced until the 1940's was from cattle finished on grass. During the 1950'south, considerable research was washed to improve the efficiency of beefiness production, giving birth to the feedlot industry where loftier energy grains are fed to cattle every bit means to decrease days on feed and improve marbling (intramuscular fatty: Imf). In add-on, U.S. consumers take grown accepted to the gustatory modality of grain-fed beef, generally preferring the flavor and overall palatability afforded by the higher energy grain ration[16]. Even so, changes in consumer demand, coupled with new enquiry on the upshot of feed on nutrient content, have a number of producers returning to the pastoral arroyo to beef product despite the inherent inefficiencies.

Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-only diets can significantly modify the fatty acid composition and improve the overall antioxidant content of beef. It is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the information currently available to substantiate an enhanced nutrient merits for grass-fed beefiness products every bit well equally to discuss the furnishings these specific nutrients accept on homo health.

Review of fatty acid profiles in grass-fed beef

Cherry meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is nutrient dumbo and regarded as an of import source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B_{half dozen}, B₁₂, D, East, and minerals, including iron, zinc and selenium [17,18]. Along with these of import nutrients, meat consumers likewise ingest a number of fats which are an of import source of free energy and facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, E and K. According to the ADA, beast fats contribute approximately 60% of the SFA in the American diet, most of which are palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0). Stearic acid has been shown to have no net impact on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[17,xix]. In addition, xxx% of the FA content in conventionally produced beef is equanimous of oleic acrid (C18:i) [20], a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that elicits a cholesterol-lowering effect amongst other healthful attributes including a reduced chance of stroke and a significant decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood force per unit area in susceptible populations [21].

Be that as it may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle can alter the lipid profile in such a style as to improve upon this nutritional bundle. Although there are genetic, age related and gender differences among the various meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the effect of beast nutrition is quite significant [22]. Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, age, species or geographic location, direct contrasts between grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate pregnant differences in the overall fat acid profile and antioxidant content found in the lipid depots and torso tissues [22-24].

Tabular array i summarizes the saturated fatty acrid analysis for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [25-31]. This table is express to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi (loin eye), thereby standardizing the contrasts to similar cuts within the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle between 20 and 30 months of age. Unfortunately, not all studies written report information in like units of mensurate (i.e., g/g of fat acid), and then directly comparisons betwixt studies are not possible.

Tabular array ane

Comparison of hateful saturated fatty acid composition (expressed equally mg/g of fatty acid or equally a % of total lipid) betwixt grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	Fatty Acrid

Author, publication year, breed, treatment	C12:0 lauric	C14:0 myristic	C16:0 palmitic	C18:0 stearic	C20:0 arachidic	Total SFA (units as specified)	Total lipid (units as specified)
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers	g/100 1000 lipid
Grass	0.05	ane.24*	18.42*	17.54*	0.25*	38.76	9.76* mg/g muscle
Grain	0.06	ane.84*	20.79*	14.96*	0.19*	39.27	xiii.03* mg/g musculus
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle	g/100 yard lipid
Grass	0.05	2.84*	26.9	17.0*	0.xiii*	48.viii*	ii.viii* % of musculus
Grain	0.07	3.45*	26.3	13.two*	0.08*	45.ane*	iv.4* % of musculus
Garcia et al., 2008, Angus X-bred steers	% of full FA
Grass	na	2.19	23.ane	13.i*	na	38.4*	2.86* %IMF
Grain	na	2.44	22.1	10.eight*	na	35.3*	3.85* %IMF
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers	mg/100 thousand musculus tissue
Grass	na	56.9*	508*	272.8	na	900*	ii.12%* % of muscle
Grain	na	103.7*	899*	463.iii	na	1568*	3.61%* % of muscle
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls	% of total intramuscular fat reported as LSM
Grass	0.04	1.82	22.56*	17.64*	na	43.91	one.51* % of muscle
Grain	0.05	1.96	24.26*	sixteen.eighty*	na	44.49	2.61* % of muscle
Descalzo, et al., 2005 Crossbred Steers	% of total FA
Grass	na	2.ii	22.0	19.one	na	42.viii	2.7* %International monetary fund
Grain	na	2.0	25.0	xviii.2	na	45.five	4.vii* %Imf
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers	% fatty acid within intramuscular fat
Grass	na	1.64*	21.61*	17.74*	na	49.08	1.68* % of muscle
Grain	na	two.17*	24.26*	15.77*	na	47.62	3.18* % of muscle

*Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each corresponding study. "na" indicates that the value was non reported in the original written report.

Table one reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in total fat as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, there is no consistent deviation in total SFA content between these two feeding regimens. Those SFA's considered to be more detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.e., myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0), were higher in grain-fed beef every bit compared to grass-fed contemporaries in 60% of the studies reviewed. Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acid (C18:0), the only saturated fat acid with a internet neutral bear on on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beef tends to produce a more favorable SFA composition although little is known of how grass-finished beef would ultimately impact serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients as compared to a grain-fed beef.

Similar SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has also become an important issue to consumers. Interestingly, beef's cholesterol content is similar to other meats (beefiness 73; pork 79; lamb 85; chicken 76; and turkey 83 mg/100 thou) [32], and can therefore exist used interchangeably with white meats to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic individuals[11,33]. Studies have shown that breed, nutrition and sex activity practice non bear on the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal musculus, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to IMF concentrations[34]. Every bit IMF levels rising, then goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [35]. Because pasture raised beef is lower in overall fat [24-27,xxx], particularly with respect to marbling or IMF [26,36], it would seem to follow that grass-finished beef would be lower in overall cholesterol content although the data is very express. Garcia et al (2008) report 40.iii and 45.8 grams of cholesterol/100 grams of tissue in pastured and grain-fed steers, respectively (P < 0.001) [24].

Interestingly, grain-fed beef consistently produces higher concentrations of MUFAs every bit compared to grass-fed beefiness, which include FAs such every bit oleic acid (C18:one cis-9), the chief MUFA in beef. A number of epidemiological studies comparing disease rates in different countries have suggested an inverse association between MUFA intake and mortality rates to CVD [3,21]. However, grass-fed beef provides a higher concentration of TVA (C18:ane t11), an of import MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acrid (CLA: C18:2 c-ix, t-11), a stiff anti-carcinogen that is synthesized within the body tissues [37]. Specific information relative to the wellness benefits of CLA and its biochemistry will exist detailed afterward.

The important polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in conventional beef are linoleic acrid (C18:two), alpha-linolenic acid (C18:iii), described as the essential FAs, and the long-chain fatty acids including arachidonic acid (C20:4), eicosapentaenoic acrid (C20:five), docosanpetaenoic acid (C22:five) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) [38]. The significance of nutrition on fatty acid composition is conspicuously demonstrated when profiles are examined past omega 6 (northward-half-dozen) and omega 3 (due north-3) families. Table ii shows no meaning change to the overall concentration of due north-6 FAs between feeding regimens, although grass-fed beef consistently shows a college concentrations of due north-3 FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more favorable n-vi:northward-3 ratio. There are a number of studies that report positive furnishings of improved n-iii intake on CVD and other health related problems discussed in more detail in the next section.

Table 2

Comparing of mean polyunsatured fatty acrid limerick (expressed every bit mg/g of fat acid or every bit a % of total lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	Fatty Acrid

Author, publication year, breed, treatment	C18:ane t11 Vaccenic Acid	C18:ii north-vi Linoleic	Full CLA	C18:3 northward-3 Linolenic	C20:5n-iii EPA	C22:5n-three DPA	C22:6n-3 DHA	Total PUFA	Full MUFA	Total n-6	Total n-three	n-6/northward-iii ratio
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers	g/100 g lipid
Grass	ane.35	12.55	5.xiv*	5.53*	two.13*	two.56*	0.twenty*	28.99*	24.69*	17.97*	10.41*	1.77*
Grain	0.92	11.95	two.65*	0.48*	0.47*	0.91*	0.11*	19.06*	34.99*	17.08	i.97*	8.99*
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle	grand/100 g lipid
Grass	two.95*	2.01	0.85*	0.71*	0.31	0.24*	na	3.41	42.v*	ii.30	1.07*	2.78*
Grain	0.51*	2.38	0.48*	0.13*	0.xix	0.06*	na	2.77	46.ii*	2.58	0.19*	13.6*
Garcia, et al., 2008, Angus steers	% of total FAs
Grass	three.22*	3.41	0.72*	1.30*	0.52*	0.70*	0.43*	7.95	37.7*	5.00*	ii.95*	one.72*
Grain	2.25*	3.93	0.58*	0.74*	0.12*	0.30*	0.fourteen*	9.31	40.8*	8.05*	0.86*	10.38*
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers	mg/100 g musculus tissue
Grass	na	108.8*	fourteen.3	32.4*	24.5*	36.5*	4.2	na	930*	191.6	97.half dozen*	i.96*
Grain	na	167.four*	sixteen.1	14.9*	thirteen.1*	31.6*	3.seven	na	1729*	253.8	63.3*	3.57*
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls	% of total fat acids
Grass	na	six.56	0.87*	2.22*	0.94*	1.32*	0.17*	fourteen.29*	56.09	ix.80	4.70*	2.04*
Grain	na	5.22	0.72*	0.46*	0.08*	0.29*	0.05*	9.07*	55.51	7.73	0.90*	8.34*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crossbred steers	% of total FAs
Grass	four.2*	5.4	na	1.4*	tr	0.6	tr	10.31*	34.17*	7.4	2.0	3.72*
Grain	2.viii*	4.seven	na	0.seven*	tr	0.4	tr	7.29*	37.83*	half dozen.3	1.i	five.73*
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers	% fatty acid within intramuscular fatty
Grass	na	iii.29*	0.53*	1.34*	0.69*	1.04*	0.09	9.96*	40.96*	na	na	1.44*
Grain	na	2.84*	0.25*	0.35*	0.xxx*	0.56*	0.09	six.02*	46.36*	na	na	three.00*

* Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens inside each corresponding written report reported. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original study. "tr" indicates trace amounts detected.

Review of Omega-iii: Omega-6 fatty acid content in grass-fed beef

There are ii essential fatty acids (EFAs) in homo nutrition: α-linolenic acid (αLA), an omega-three fatty acid; and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fat acrid. The human trunk cannot synthesize essential fat acids, still they are critical to human wellness; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from food. Both αLA and LA are polyunsaturated and serve as precursors of other important compounds. For case, αLA is the forerunner for the omega-3 pathway. Also, LA is the parent fatty acid in the omega-6 pathway. Omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (due north-6) fatty acids are two carve up distinct families, even so they are synthesized by some of the same enzymes; specifically, delta-5-desaturase and delta-6-desaturase. Excess of one family of FAs can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological effects [39]. Figure i depicts a schematic of due north-6 and n-3 metabolism and elongation within the torso [40].

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Linoleic (C18:2n-six) and α-Linolenic (C18:3n-iii) Acid metabolism and elongation. (Adapted from Simopoulos et al., 1991)

A healthy diet should consist of roughly one to four times more omega-6 fat acids than omega-3 fat acids. The typical American diet tends to contain xi to 30 times more omega -half dozen fatty acids than omega -iii, a miracle that has been hypothesized as a pregnant factor in the rising charge per unit of inflammatory disorders in the United States[40]. Tabular array 2 shows significant differences in due north-6:northward-three ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beef, with and overall average of 1.53 and vii.65 for grass-fed and grain-fed, respectively, for all studies reported in this review.

The major types of omega-3 fatty acids used by the body include: α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-iii, αLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-3, DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-iii, DHA). Once eaten, the body converts αLA to EPA, DPA and DHA, albeit at depression efficiency. Studies generally concur that whole body conversion of αLA to DHA is below 5% in humans, the majority of these long-chain FAs are consumed in the nutrition [41].

The omega-3 fatty acids were offset discovered in the early on 1970'south when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an exceptionally depression incidence of centre illness and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a diet high in fat. These early studies established fish equally a rich source of n-three fatty acids. More contempo research has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial part in the prevention of atherosclerosis, eye assail, depression and cancer [forty,42]. In add-on, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation caused by rheumatoid arthritis [43,44].

The human brain has a high requirement for DHA; low DHA levels have been linked to depression brain serotonin levels, which are connected to an increased tendency for depression and suicide. Several studies take established a correlation between depression levels of omega -3 fatty acids and depression. High consumption of omega-3 FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of depression, a decreased prevalence of age-related retentiveness loss and a lower adventure of developing Alzheimer'due south affliction [45-51].

The National Institutes of Wellness has published recommended daily intakes of FAs; specific recommendations include 650 mg of EPA and DHA, 2.22 thou/twenty-four hours of αLA and 4.44 g/day of LA. Nonetheless, the Establish of Medicine has recommended DRI (dietary reference intake) for LA (omega-6) at 12 to 17 thousand and αLA (omega-iii) at i.1 to 1.vi thousand for developed women and men, respectively. Although seafood is the major dietary source of n-3 fatty acids, a recent fatty acid intake survey indicated that red meat also serves as a meaning source of n-3 fatty acids for some populations [52].

Sinclair and co-workers were the first to prove that beef consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of n-iii fat acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [twoscore]. Besides, there are a number of studies that take been conducted with livestock which report similar findings, i.e., animals that consume rations loftier in precursor lipids produce a meat production higher in the essential fatty acids [53,54]. For instance, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-3 content of the meat and also produced a more than favorable omega-half dozen to omega-three ratio than grain-fed beef [46,55-57].

Tabular array 2 shows the event of ration on polyunsaturated fat acid composition from a number of contempo studies that contrast grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [24-28,30,31]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly higher levels of omega-3 inside the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-6 levels were left unchanged. In fact, equally the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based diet, the concentration of n-3 FAs decreases in a linear style. Grass-finished beef consistently produces a higher concentration of northward-3 FAs (without effecting n-6 FA content), resulting in a more than favorable north-6:n-3 ratio.

The amount of total lipid (fat) found in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen every bit demonstrated in Tables one and 2. Fat volition also vary by cut, as non all locations of the carcass will deposit fat to the same caste. Genetics also play a office in lipid metabolism creating meaning brood effects. Even so, the upshot of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fatty acid limerick.

Review of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans vaccenic acrid (TVA) in grass-fed beef

Conjugated linoleic acids make up a group of polyunsaturated FAs found in meat and milk from ruminant animals and exist as a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA. Of the many isomers identified, the cis-ix, trans-eleven CLA isomer (also referred to equally rumenic acid or RA) accounts for up to 80-90% of the full CLA in ruminant products [58]. Naturally occurring CLAs originate from two sources: bacterial isomerization and/or biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen and the desaturation of trans-fatty acids in the adipose tissue and mammary gland [59,lx].

Microbial biohydrogenation of LA and αLA by an anaerobic rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens is highly dependent on rumen pH [61]. Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. fibrisolven activeness, conversely grass-based diets provide for a more favorable rumen environment for subsequent bacterial synthesis [62]. Rumen pH may aid to explain the apparent differences in CLA content between grain and grass-finished meat products (see Tabular array 2). De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:i TVA has been documented in rodents, dairy cows and humans. Studies suggest a linear increment in CLA synthesis as the TVA content of the diet increased in human subjects [63]. The rate of conversion of TVA to CLA has been estimated to range from 5 to 12% in rodents to 19 to xxx% in humans[64]. True dietary intake of CLA should therefore consider native 9c11t-C18:2 (actual CLA) too as the elevent-C18:1 (potential CLA) content of foods [65,66]. Figure 2 portrays de novo synthesis pathways of CLA from TVA [37].

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De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:1 vaccenic acid. (Adapted from Bauman et al., 1999)

Natural augmentation of CLA c9t11 and TVA within the lipid fraction of beef products tin can be accomplished through diets rich in grass and lush greenish forages. While precursors tin can exist constitute in both grains and lush green forages, grass-fed ruminant species have been shown to produce two to 3 times more than CLA than ruminants fed in solitude on loftier grain diets, largely due to a more favorable rumen pH [34,56,57,67] (see Table 2).

The bear upon of feeding practices becomes even more than evident in calorie-free of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C18:1 isomer in grain-fed beef. Dugan et al (2007) reported that the major trans isomer in beef produced from a 73% barley grain nutrition is 10t-eighteen:1 (2.thirteen% of total lipid) rather than 11t-18:1 (TVA) (0.77% of total lipid), a finding that is not particularly favorable considering the information that would support a negative impact of 10t-18:ane on LDL cholesterol and CVD [68,69].

Over the past two decades numerous studies have shown significant health benefits attributable to the deportment of CLA, as demonstrated by experimental brute models, including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [70-72]. Conjugated linoleic acid has also been reported to attune body composition past reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue in a variety of species including mice, rats, pigs, and now humans [73-76]. These changes in trunk limerick occur at ultra high doses of CLA, dosages that can only be attained through synthetic supplementation that may as well produce ill side-effects, such as gastrointestinal upset, adverse changes to glucose/insulin metabolism and compromised liver function [77-81]. A number of excellent reviews on CLA and human health tin can be institute in the literature [61,82-84].

Optimal dietary intake remains to be established for CLA. Information technology has been hypothesized that 95 mg CLA/day is plenty to show positive effects in the reduction of breast cancer in women utilizing epidemiological data linking increased milk consumption with reduced breast cancer[85]. Ha et al. (1989) published a much more conservative estimate stating that three g/twenty-four hour period CLA is required to promote human health benefits[86]. Ritzenthaler et al. (2001) estimated CLA intakes of 620 mg/twenty-four hours for men and 441 mg/day for women are necessary for cancer prevention[87]. Plain, all these values represent crude estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated beast data. What is clear is that we as a population exercise non swallow enough CLA in our diets to have a meaning impact on cancer prevention or suppression. Reports indicate that Americans consume between 150 to 200 mg/day, Germans consumer slightly more between 300 to 400 mg/solar day[87], and the Australians seem to exist closer to the optimum concentration at 500 to 1000 mg/mean solar day according to Parodi (1994) [88].

Review of pro-Vitamin A/β-carotene in grass-fed meat

Carotenoids are a family of compounds that are synthesized by higher plants as natural plant pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for yellow, orangish and ruby-red coloring, respectively. Ruminants on high provender rations pass a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and trunk fat in a manner that has yet to be fully elucidated. Cattle produced under all-encompassing grass-based production systems mostly accept carcass fat which is more than yellow than their concentrate-fed counterparts acquired by carotenoids from the lush light-green forages. Although yellow carcass fatty is negatively regarded in many countries around the globe, it is also associated with a healthier fatty acid profile and a higher antioxidant content [89].

Constitute species, harvest methods, and season, all take meaning impacts on the carotenoid content of forage. In the process of making silage, haylage or hay, equally much every bit 80% of the carotenoid content is destroyed [90]. Further, meaning seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of institute growth.

Carotenes (mainly β-carotene) are precursors of retinol (Vitamin A), a critical fat-soluble vitamin that is of import for normal vision, bone growth, reproduction, cell division, and cell differentiation [91]. Specifically, it is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the eyes and also the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. The overall integrity of peel and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a barrier to bacterial and viral infection [xv,92]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune function by supporting the production and function of white blood cells [12,xiii].

The electric current recommended intake of vitamin A is 3,000 to 5,000 IU for men and two,300 to 4,000 IU for women [93], respectively, which is equivalent to 900 to 1500 μg (micrograms) (Annotation: DRI as reported by the Institute of Medicine for non-pregnant/non-lactating adult females is 700 μg/day and males is 900 μg/day or 2,300 - iii,000 I U (bold conversion of three.33 IU/μg). While there is no RDA (Required Daily Allowance) for β-carotene or other pro-vitamin A carotenoids, the Institute of Medicine suggests consuming 3 mg of β-carotene daily to maintain plasma β-carotene in the range associated with normal office and a lowered risk of chronic diseases (NIH: Office of Dietary Supplements).

The effects of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beef was described by Descalzo et al. (2005) who plant pasture-fed steers incorporated significantly higher amounts of beta-carotene into musculus tissues as compared to grain-fed animals [94]. Concentrations were 0.45 μg/yard and 0.06 μg/g for beef from pasture and grain-fed cattle respectively, demonstrating a 7 fold increment in β-carotene levels for grass-fed beef over the grain-fed contemporaries. Similar data has been reported previously, presumably due to the high β-carotene content of fresh grasses as compared to cereal grains[38,55,95-97]. (run into Table three)

Table three

Comparison of mean β-carotene vitamin content in fresh beefiness from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	β-carotene

Author, year, animal class	Grass-fed (ug/m tissue)	Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers	0.74*	0.17*
Descalzo et al., 2005 Crossbred steers	0.45*	0.06*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers	0.xvi*	0.01*

* Indicates a pregnant deviation (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each corresponding study.

Review of Vitamin E/α-tocopherol in grass-fed beef

Vitamin E is also a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in eight different isoforms with powerful antioxidant activity, the nigh agile being α-tocopherol [98]. Numerous studies have shown that cattle finished on pasture produce higher levels of α-tocopherol in the concluding meat product than cattle fed high concentrate diets[23,28,94,97,99-101] (run across Table 4).

Table 4

Comparison of mean α-tocopherol vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	α-tocopherol

Author, year, beast class	Grass-fed (ug/k tissue)	Grain-fed (ug/k tissue)
De la Fuente et al., 2009, Mixed cattle	four.07*	0.75*
Descalzo, et al., 2008, Crossbred steers	iii.08*	1.50*
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers	two.1*	0.8*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crosbred steers	4.6*	2.2*
Realini et al., 2004, Hereford steers	3.91*	ii.92*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers	4.5*	1.8*

* Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported inside each corresponding study.

Antioxidants such every bit vitamin E protect cells against the effects of free radicals. Free radicals are potentially dissentious by-products of metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such every bit cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Preliminary enquiry shows vitamin E supplementation may assistance forestall or filibuster coronary middle disease [102-105]. Vitamin E may also block the germination of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrates consumed in the diet. Information technology may likewise protect confronting the development of cancers by enhancing immune office [106]. In add-on to the cancer fighting effects, there are some observational studies that constitute lens clarity (a diagnostic tool for cataracts) was ameliorate in patients who regularly used vitamin Eastward [107,108]. The electric current recommended intake of vitamin Eastward is 22 IU (natural source) or 33 IU (synthetic source) for men and women [93,109], respectively, which is equivalent to xv milligrams by weight.

The concentration of natural α-tocopherol (vitamin Eastward) found in grain-fed beefiness ranged betwixt 0.75 to 2.92 μg/g of muscle whereas pasture-fed beef ranges from 2.1 to 7.73 μg/g of tissue depending on the type of forage made bachelor to the animals (Table iv). Grass finishing increases α-tocopherol levels three-fold over grain-fed beef and places grass-fed beef well within range of the muscle α-tocopherol levels needed to extend the shelf-life of retail beef (3 to four μg α-tocopherol/gram tissue) [110]. Vitamin East (α-tocopherol) acts post-mortem to delay oxidative deterioration of the meat; a process past which myoglobin is converted into brown metmyoglobin, producing a darkened, chocolate-brown appearance to the meat. In a study where grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness were directly compared, the bright red color associated with oxymyoglobin was retained longer in the retail display in the grass-fed grouping, even thought the grass-fed meat contains a higher concentration of more oxidizable due north-3 PUFA. The authors concluded that the antioxidants in grass probably acquired higher tissue levels of vitamin Eastward in grazed animals with benefits of lower lipid oxidation and meliorate color retention despite the greater potential for lipid oxidation[111].

Review of antioxidant enzyme content in grass-fed beef

Glutathione (GT), is a relatively new protein identified in foods. It is a tripeptide equanimous of cysteine, glutamic acid and glycine and functions as an antioxidant primarily as a component of the enzyme system containing GT oxidase and reductase. Within the cell, GT has the capability of quenching costless radicals (similar hydrogen peroxide), thus protecting the cell from oxidized lipids or proteins and prevent impairment to DNA. GT and its associated enzymes are found in virtually all institute and animal tissue and is readily absorbed in the small intestine[112].

Although our knowledge of GT content in foods is still somewhat express, dairy products, eggs, apples, beans, and rice contain very little GT (< 3.3 mg/100 thou). In contrast, fresh vegetables (e.g., asparagus 28.3 mg/100 grand) and freshly cooked meats, such every bit ham and beefiness (23.3 mg/100 g and 17.5 mg/100 chiliad, respectively), are high in GT [113].

Because GT compounds are elevated in lush dark-green forages, grass-fed beefiness is particularly high in GT as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Descalzo et al. (2007) reported a significant increase in GT molar concentrations in grass-fed beefiness [114]. In improver, grass-fed samples were besides higher in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (Cat) activity than beefiness from grain-fed animals[115]. Superoxide dismutase and catalase are coupled enzymes that work together as powerful antioxidants, SOD scavenges superoxide anions by forming hydrogen peroxide and True cat and so decomposes the hydrogen peroxide to H₂O and O₂. Grass only diets improve the oxidative enzyme concentration in beef, protecting the musculus lipids against oxidation likewise as providing the beefiness consumer with an boosted source of antioxidant compounds.

Issues related to flavor and palatability of grass-fed beef

Maintaining the more favorable lipid profile in grass-fed beefiness requires a high pct of lush fresh forage or grass in the ration. The college the concentration of fresh green forages, the college the αLA forerunner that will be available for CLA and northward-3 synthesis [53,54]. Fresh pasture forages have 10 to 12 times more C18:3 than cereal grains [116]. Stale or cured forages, such equally hay, will have a slightly lower corporeality of forerunner for CLA and n-3 synthesis. Shifting diets to cereal grains will crusade a meaning change in the FA profile and antioxidant content inside 30 days of transition [57].

Because grass-finishing alters the biochemistry of the beefiness, odour and season will also exist affected. These attributes are directly linked to the chemical makeup of the final product. In a study comparison the flavor compounds between cooked grass-fed and grain-fed beef, the grass-fed beef independent college concentrations of diterpenoids, derivatives of chlorophyll call phyt-1-ene and phyt-ii-ene, that changed both the flavour and aroma of the cooked product [117]. Others have identified a "green" odor from cooked grass-fed meat associated with hexanals derived from oleic and αLA FAs. In contrast to the "green" aroma, grain-fed beef was described as possessing a "soapy" smell, presumably from the octanals formed from LA that is found in high concentration in grains [118]. Grass-fed beef consumers can expect a different flavor and aroma to their steaks as they cook on the grill. Likewise, because of the lower lipid content and high concentration of PUFAs, cooking time will be reduced. For an exhaustive wait at the effect of meat compounds on season, see Calkins and Hodgen (2007) [119].

With respect to palatability, grass-fed beef has historically been less well accepted in markets where grain-fed products predominant. For example, in a written report where British lambs fed grass and Spanish lambs fed milk and concentrates were assessed by British and Castilian gustation panels, both plant the British lamb to have a higher smell and flavor intensity. However, the British panel preferred the flavor and overall eating quality of the grass-fed lamb, the Spanish panel much preferred the Spanish fed lamb [120]. Likewise, the U.S. is well known for producing corn-fed beef, taste panels and consumers who are more familiar with the gustatory modality of corn-fed beefiness seem to adopt it equally well [sixteen]. An individual normally comes to prefer the foods they grew up eating, making consumer sensory panels more than of an art than science [36]. Trained gustatory modality panels, i.due east., persons specifically trained to evaluate sensory characteristics in beef, found grass-fed beefiness less palatable than grain-fed beef in season and tenderness [119,121].

Conclusion

Research spanning 3 decades supports the statement that grass-fed beef (on a g/chiliad fat basis), has a more desirable SFA lipid profile (more C18:0 cholesterol neutral SFA and less C14:0 & C16:0 cholesterol elevating SFAs) as compared to grain-fed beef. Grass-finished beef is besides college in total CLA (C18:2) isomers, TVA (C18:1 t11) and n-three FAs on a g/m fat basis. This results in a ameliorate n-half-dozen:due north-iii ratio that is preferred by the nutritional community. Grass-fed beefiness is besides higher in precursors for Vitamin A and E and cancer fighting antioxidants such as GT and SOD activity as compared to grain-fed contemporaries.

Grass-fed beef tends to be lower in overall fat content, an important consideration for those consumers interested in decreasing overall fat consumption. Because of these differences in FA content, grass-fed beef also possesses a distinct grass flavour and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. To maximize the favorable lipid profile and to guarantee the elevated antioxidant content, animals should be finished on 100% grass or pasture-based diets.

Grain-fed beef consumers may reach similar intakes of both due north-3 and CLA through consumption of college fat portions with higher overall palatability scores. A number of clinical studies have shown that today's lean beef, regardless of feeding strategy, tin can exist used interchangeably with fish or skinless chicken to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients.

Abbreviations

c: cis; t: trans; FA: fatty acid; SFA: saturated fatty acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acid; TVA: trans-vaccenic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acrid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; GT: glutathione; SOD: superoxide dismutase; True cat: catalase.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they take no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

CAD was responsible for the literature review, completed well-nigh of the primary writing, created the manuscript and worked through the submission process; AA conducted the literature search, organized the articles according to category, completed some of the primary writing and served as editor; SPD conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; GAN conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; SL conducted a portion o the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Grace Berryhill for her help with the figures, tables and editorial contributions to this manuscript.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846864/